Minix Man Pages
home | helpx minix x x minixx MAN-PAGES(7) Linux Programmer's Manual MAN-PAGES(7) NAME man-pages - conventions for writing Linux man pages SYNOPSIS man [section] title DESCRIPTION This page describes the conventions that should be employed when writ- ing man pages for the Linux man-pages project, which documents the user-space API provided by the Linux kernel and the GNU C library. The project thus provides most of the pages in Section 2, many of the pages that appear in Sections 3, 4, and 7, and a few of the pages that appear in Sections 1, 5, and 8 of the man pages on a Linux system. The con- ventions described on this page may also be useful for authors writing man pages for other projects. Sections of the manual pages The manual Sections are traditionally defined as follows: 1 User commands (Programs) Those commands that can be executed by the user from within a shell. 2 System calls Those functions which wrap operations performed by the ker- nel. 3 Library calls All library functions excluding the system call wrappers (Most of the libc functions). 4 Special files (devices) Files found in /dev which allow to access to devices through the kernel. 5 File formats and configuration files Describes various human-readable file formats and configura- tion files. 6 Games Games and funny little programs available on the system. 7 Overview, conventions, and miscellaneous Overviews or descriptions of various topics, conventions and protocols, character set standards, the standard filesystem layout, and miscellaneous other things. 8 System management commands Commands like mount(8), many of which only root can execute. Macro package New manual pages should be marked up using the groff an.tmac package described in man(7). This choice is mainly for consistency: the vast majority of existing Linux manual pages are marked up using these macros. Conventions for source file layout Please limit source code line length to no more than about 75 charac- ters wherever possible. This helps avoid line-wrapping in some mail clients when patches are submitted inline. Title line The first command in a man page should be a TH command: .TH title section date source manual where: title The title of the man page, written in all caps (e.g., MAN-PAGES). section The section number in which the man page should be placed (e.g., 7). date The date of the last nontrivial change that was made to the man page. (Within the man-pages project, the necessary updates to these timestamps are handled au- tomatically by scripts, so there is no need to manu- ally update them as part of a patch.) Dates should be written in the form YYYY-MM-DD. source The source of the command, function, or system call. For those few man-pages pages in Sections 1 and 8, probably you just want to write GNU. For system calls, just write Linux. (An earlier prac- tice was to write the version number of the kernel from which the manual page was being written/checked. However, this was never done consistently, and so was probably worse than including no version number. Henceforth, avoid including a version number.) For library calls that are part of glibc or one of the other common GNU libraries, just use GNU C Library, GNU, or an empty string. For Section 4 pages, use Linux. In cases of doubt, just write Linux, or GNU. manual The title of the manual (e.g., for Section 2 and 3 pages in the man-pages package, use Linux Programmer's Manual). Sections within a manual page The list below shows conventional or suggested sections. Most manual pages should include at least the highlighted sections. Arrange a new manual page so that sections are placed in the order shown in the list. NAME SYNOPSIS CONFIGURATION [Normally only in Section 4] DESCRIPTION OPTIONS [Normally only in Sections 1, 8] EXIT STATUS [Normally only in Sections 1, 8] RETURN VALUE [Normally only in Sections 2, 3] ERRORS [Typically only in Sections 2, 3] ENVIRONMENT FILES VERSIONS [Normally only in Sections 2, 3] ATTRIBUTES [Normally only in Sections 2, 3] CONFORMING TO NOTES BUGS EXAMPLE SEE ALSO Where a traditional heading would apply, please use it; this kind of consistency can make the information easier to understand. If you must, you can create your own headings if they make things easier to understand (this can be especially useful for pages in Sections 4 and 5). However, before doing this, consider whether you could use the traditional headings, with some subsections (.SS) within those sec- tions. The following list elaborates on the contents of each of the above sec- tions. NAME The name of this manual page. See man(7) for important details of the line(s) that should follow the .SH NAME command. All words in this line (including the word immediately following the "\-") should be in lowercase, except where English or technical terminological convention dictates otherwise. SYNOPSIS A brief summary of the command or function's interface. For commands, this shows the syntax of the command and its arguments (including options); boldface is used for as-is text and italics are used to indicate replaceable arguments. Brackets ([]) surround optional arguments, vertical bars (|) separate choices, and ellipses (...) can be repeated. For functions, it shows any required data declarations or #include directives, followed by the function declaration. Where a feature test macro must be defined in order to obtain the declaration of a function (or a variable) from a header file, then the SYNOPSIS should indicate this, as described in feature_test_macros(7). CONFIGURATION Configuration details for a device. This section normally appears only in Section 4 pages. DESCRIPTION An explanation of what the program, function, or format does. Discuss how it interacts with files and standard input, and what it produces on standard output or standard er- ror. Omit internals and implementation details unless they're critical for understanding the interface. De- scribe the usual case; for information on command-line options of a program use the OPTIONS section. When describing new behavior or new flags for a system call or library function, be careful to note the kernel or C library version that introduced the change. The preferred method of noting this information for flags is as part of a .TP list, in the following form (here, for a new system call flag): XYZ_FLAG (since Linux 3.7) Description of flag... Including version information is especially useful to users who are constrained to using older kernel or C li- brary versions (which is typical in embedded systems, for example). OPTIONS A description of the command-line options accepted by a program and how they change its behavior. This section should appear only for Section 1 and 8 man- ual pages. EXIT STATUS A list of the possible exit status values of a program and the conditions that cause these values to be re- turned. This section should appear only for Section 1 and 8 man- ual pages. RETURN VALUE For Section 2 and 3 pages, this section gives a list of the values the library routine will return to the caller and the conditions that cause these values to be re- turned. ERRORS For Section 2 and 3 manual pages, this is a list of the values that may be placed in errno in the event of an er- ror, along with information about the cause of the er- rors. Where several different conditions produce the same er- ror, the preferred approach is to create separate list entries (with duplicate error names) for each of the con- ditions. This makes the separate conditions clear, may make the list easier to read, and allows metainformation (e.g., kernel version number where the condition first became applicable) to be more easily marked for each con- dition. The error list should be in alphabetical order. ENVIRONMENT A list of all environment variables that affect the pro- gram or function and how they affect it. FILES A list of the files the program or function uses, such as configuration files, startup files, and files the program directly operates on. Give the full pathname of these files, and use the in- stallation process to modify the directory part to match user preferences. For many programs, the default instal- lation location is in /usr/local, so your base manual page should use /usr/local as the base. ATTRIBUTES A summary of various attributes of the function(s) docu- mented on this page. See attributes(7) for further de- tails. VERSIONS A brief summary of the Linux kernel or glibc versions where a system call or library function appeared, or changed significantly in its operation. As a general rule, every new interface should include a VERSIONS section in its manual page. Unfortunately, many existing manual pages don't include this information (since there was no policy to do so when they were writ- ten). Patches to remedy this are welcome, but, from the perspective of programmers writing new code, this infor- mation probably matters only in the case of kernel inter- faces that have been added in Linux 2.4 or later (i.e., changes since kernel 2.2), and library functions that have been added to glibc since version 2.1 (i.e., changes since glibc 2.0). The syscalls(2) manual page also provides information about kernel versions in which various system calls first appeared. CONFORMING TO A description of any standards or conventions that relate to the function or command described by the manual page. The preferred terms to use for the various standards are listed as headings in standards(7). For a page in Section 2 or 3, this section should note the POSIX.1 version(s) that the call conforms to, and also whether the call is specified in C99. (Don't worry too much about other standards like SUS, SUSv2, and XPG, or the SVr4 and 4.xBSD implementation standards, unless the call was specified in those standards, but isn't in the current version of POSIX.1.) If the call is not governed by any standards but commonly exists on other systems, note them. If the call is Linux-specific, note this. If this section consists of just a list of standards (which it commonly does), terminate the list with a pe- riod ('.'). NOTES Miscellaneous notes. For Section 2 and 3 man pages you may find it useful to include subsections (SS) named Linux Notes and Glibc Notes. In Section 2, use the heading C library/kernel differ- ences to mark off notes that describe the differences (if any) between the C library wrapper function for a system call and the raw system call interface provided by the kernel. BUGS A list of limitations, known defects or inconveniences, and other questionable activities. EXAMPLE One or more examples demonstrating how this function, file or command is used. For details on writing example programs, see Example pro- grams below. AUTHORS A list of authors of the documentation or program. Use of an AUTHORS section is strongly discouraged. Gen- erally, it is better not to clutter every page with a list of (over time potentially numerous) authors; if you write or significantly amend a page, add a copyright no- tice as a comment in the source file. If you are the au- thor of a device driver and want to include an address for reporting bugs, place this under the BUGS section. SEE ALSO A comma-separated list of related man pages, possibly followed by other related pages or documents. The list should be ordered by section number and then al- phabetically by name. Do not terminate this list with a period. Where the SEE ALSO list contains many long manual page names, to improve the visual result of the output, it may be useful to employ the .ad l (don't right justify) and .nh (don't hyphenate) directives. Hyphenation of indi- vidual page names can be prevented by preceding words with the string "\%". Given the distributed, autonomous nature of FOSS projects and their documentation, it is sometimes necessary--and in many cases desirable--that the SEE ALSO section in- cludes references to manual pages provided by other projects. STYLE GUIDE The following subsections describe the preferred style for the man- pages project. For details not covered below, the Chicago Manual of Style is usually a good source; try also grepping for preexisting usage in the project source tree. Use of gender-neutral language As far as possible, use gender-neutral language in the text of man pages. Use of "they" ("them", "themself", "their") as a gender-neutral singular pronoun is acceptable. Formatting conventions for manual pages describing commands For manual pages that describe a command (typically in Sections 1 and 8), the arguments are always specified using italics, even in the SYN- OPSIS section. The name of the command, and its options, should always be formatted in bold. Formatting conventions for manual pages describing functions For manual pages that describe functions (typically in Sections 2 and 3), the arguments are always specified using italics, even in the SYN- OPSIS section, where the rest of the function is specified in bold: int myfunction(int argc, char **argv); Variable names should, like argument names, be specified in italics. Any reference to the subject of the current manual page should be writ- ten with the name in bold followed by a pair of parentheses in Roman (normal) font. For example, in the fcntl(2) man page, references to the subject of the page would be written as: fcntl(). The preferred way to write this in the source file is: .BR fcntl () (Using this format, rather than the use of "\fB...\fP()" makes it eas- ier to write tools that parse man page source files.) Use semantic newlines In the source of a manual page, new sentences should be started on new lines, and long sentences should split into lines at clause breaks (commas, semicolons, colons, and so on). This convention, sometimes known as "semantic newlines", makes it easier to see the effect of patches, which often operate at the level of individual sentences or sentence clauses. Formatting conventions (general) Paragraphs should be separated by suitable markers (usually either .PP or .IP). Do not separate paragraphs using blank lines, as this results in poor rendering in some output formats (such as PostScript and PDF). Filenames (whether pathnames, or references to header files) are always in italics (e.g., _stdio.h_), except in the SYNOPSIS section, where in- cluded files are in bold (e.g., #include <stdio.h>). When referring to a standard header file include, specify the header file surrounded by angle brackets, in the usual C way (e.g., _stdio.h_). Special macros, which are usually in uppercase, are in bold (e.g., MAX- INT). Exception: don't boldface NULL. When enumerating a list of error codes, the codes are in bold (this list usually uses the .TP macro). Complete commands should, if long, be written as an indented line on their own, with a blank line before and after the command, for example man 7 man-pages If the command is short, then it can be included inline in the text, in italic format, for example, man 7 man-pages. In this case, it may be worth using nonbreaking spaces ("\ ") at suitable places in the com- mand. Command options should be written in italics (e.g., -l). Expressions, if not written on a separate indented line, should be specified in italics. Again, the use of nonbreaking spaces may be ap- propriate if the expression is inlined with normal text. When showing example shell sessions, user input should be formatted in bold, for example $ date Thu Jul 7 13:01:27 CEST 2016 Any reference to another man page should be written with the name in bold, always followed by the section number, formatted in Roman (nor- mal) font, without any separating spaces (e.g., intro(2)). The pre- ferred way to write this in the source file is: .BR intro (2) (Including the section number in cross references lets tools like man2html(1) create properly hyperlinked pages.) Control characters should be written in bold face, with no quotes; for example, ^X. Spelling Starting with release 2.59, man-pages follows American spelling conven- tions (previously, there was a random mix of British and American spellings); please write all new pages and patches according to these conventions. Aside from the well-known spelling differences, there are a few other subtleties to watch for: * American English tends to use the forms "backward", "upward", "to- ward", and so on rather than the British forms "backwards", "up- wards", "towards", and so on. BSD version numbers The classical scheme for writing BSD version numbers is x.yBSD, where x.y is the version number (e.g., 4.2BSD). Avoid forms such as BSD 4.3. Capitalization In subsection ("SS") headings, capitalize the first word in the head- ing, but otherwise use lowercase, except where English usage (e.g., proper nouns) or programming language requirements (e.g., identifier names) dictate otherwise. For example: .SS Unicode under Linux Indentation of structure definitions, shell session logs, and so on When structure definitions, shell session logs, and so on are included in running text, indent them by 4 spaces (i.e., a block enclosed by .in +4n and .in), format them using the .EX and EE macros, and surround them with suitable paragraph markers (either .PP or .IP). For example: .PP .in +4n .EX int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { return 0; } .EE .in .PP Preferred terms The following table lists some preferred terms to use in man pages, mainly to ensure consistency across pages. Term Avoid using Notes ------------------------------------------------------------------ bit mask bitmask built-in builtin Epoch epoch For the UNIX Epoch (00:00:00, 1 Jan 1970 UTC) filename file name filesystem file system hostname host name inode i-node lowercase lower case, lower-case nonzero non-zero pathname path name pseudoterminal pseudo-terminal privileged port reserved port, system port real-time realtime, real time run time runtime saved set-group-ID saved group ID, saved set-GID saved set-user-ID saved user ID, saved set-UID set-group-ID set-GID, setgid set-user-ID set-UID, setuid superuser super user, super-user superblock super block, super- block timestamp time stamp timezone time zone uppercase upper case, upper-case usable useable user space userspace username user name x86-64 x86_64 Except if referring to result of "un- ame -m" or similar zeros zeroes See also the discussion Hyphenation of attributive compounds below. Terms to avoid The following table lists some terms to avoid using in man pages, along with some suggested alternatives, mainly to ensure consistency across pages. Avoid Use instead Notes ------------------------------------------------------------ 32bit 32-bit same for 8-bit, 16-bit, etc. current process calling process A common mistake made by kernel pro- grammers when writ- ing man pages manpage man page, manual page minus infinity negative infinity non-root unprivileged user non-superuser unprivileged user nonprivileged unprivileged OS operating system plus infinity positive infinity pty pseudoterminal tty terminal Unices UNIX systems Unixes UNIX systems Trademarks Use the correct spelling and case for trademarks. The following is a list of the correct spellings of various relevant trademarks that are sometimes misspelled: DG/UX HP-UX UNIX UnixWare NULL, NUL, null pointer, and null character A null pointer is a pointer that points to nothing, and is normally in- dicated by the constant NULL. On the other hand, NUL is the null byte, a byte with the value 0, represented in C via the character constant '\0'. The preferred term for the pointer is "null pointer" or simply "NULL"; avoid writing "NULL pointer". The preferred term for the byte is "null byte". Avoid writing "NUL", since it is too easily confused with "NULL". Avoid also the terms "zero byte" and "null character". The byte that terminates a C string should be described as "the terminating null byte"; strings may be de- scribed as "null-terminated", but avoid the use of "NUL-terminated". Hyperlinks For hyperlinks, use the .UR/.UE macro pair (see groff_man(7)). This produces proper hyperlinks that can be used in a web browser, when ren- dering a page with, say: BROWSER=firefox man -H pagename Use of e.g., i.e., etc., a.k.a., and similar In general, the use of abbreviations such as "e.g.", "i.e.", "etc.", "cf.", and "a.k.a." should be avoided, in favor of suitable full word- ings ("for example", "that is", "compare to", "and so on", "also known as"). The only place where such abbreviations may be acceptable is in short parenthetical asides (e.g., like this one). Always include periods in such abbreviations, as shown here. In addi- tion, "e.g." and "i.e." should always be followed by a comma. Em-dashes The way to write an em-dash--the glyph that appears at either end of this subphrase--in *roff is with the macro "\(em". (On an ASCII termi- nal, an em-dash typically renders as two hyphens, but in other typo- graphical contexts it renders as a long dash.) Em-dashes should be written without surrounding spaces. Hyphenation of attributive compounds Compound terms should be hyphenated when used attributively (i.e., to qualify a following noun). Some examples: 32-bit value command-line argument floating-point number run-time check user-space function wide-character string Hyphenation with multi, non, pre, re, sub, and so on The general tendency in modern English is not to hyphenate after pre- fixes such as "multi", "non", "pre", "re", "sub", and so on. Manual pages should generally follow this rule when these prefixes are used in natural English constructions with simple suffixes. The following list gives some examples of the preferred forms: interprocess multithreaded multiprocess nonblocking nondefault nonempty noninteractive nonnegative nonportable nonzero preallocated precreate prerecorded reestablished reinitialize rearm reread subcomponent subdirectory subsystem Hyphens should be retained when the prefixes are used in nonstandard English words, with trademarks, proper nouns, acronyms, or compound terms. Some examples: non-ASCII non-English non-NULL non-real-time Finally, note that "re-create" and "recreate" are two different verbs, and the former is probably what you want. Real minus character Where a real minus character is required (e.g., for numbers such as -1, for man page cross references such as utf-8(7), or when writing options that have a leading dash, such as in ls -l), use the following form in the man page source: \- This guideline applies also to code examples. Character constants To produce single quotes that render well in both ASCII and UTF-8, use the following form for character constants in the man page source: \(aqC\(aq where C is the quoted character. This guideline applies also to char- acter constants used in code examples. Example programs and shell sessions Manual pages may include example programs demonstrating how to use a system call or library function. However, note the following: * Example programs should be written in C. * An example program is necessary and useful only if it demonstrates something beyond what can easily be provided in a textual descrip- tion of the interface. An example program that does nothing other than call an interface usually serves little purpose. * Example programs should be fairly short (preferably less than 100 lines; ideally less than 50 lines). * Example programs should do error checking after system calls and li- brary function calls. * Example programs should be complete, and compile without warnings when compiled with cc -Wall. * Where possible and appropriate, example programs should allow exper- imentation, by varying their behavior based on inputs (ideally from command-line arguments, or alternatively, via input read by the pro- gram). * Example programs should be laid out according to Kernighan and Ritchie style, with 4-space indents. (Avoid the use of TAB charac- ters in source code!) The following command can be used to format your source code to something close to the preferred style: indent -npro -kr -i4 -ts4 -sob -l72 -ss -nut -psl prog.c * For consistency, all example programs should terminate using either of: exit(EXIT_SUCCESS); exit(EXIT_FAILURE); Avoid using the following forms to terminate a program: exit(0); exit(1); return n; * If there is extensive explanatory text before the program source code, mark off the source code with a subsection heading Program source, as in: .SS Program source Always do this if the explanatory text includes a shell session log. If you include a shell session log demonstrating the use of a program or other system feature: * Place the session log above the source code listing * Indent the session log by four spaces. * Boldface the user input text, to distinguish it from output produced by the system. For some examples of what example programs should look like, see wait(2) and pipe(2). EXAMPLE For canonical examples of how man pages in the man-pages package should look, see pipe(2) and fcntl(2). SEE ALSO man(1), man2html(1), attributes(7), groff(7), groff_man(7), man(7), mdoc(7) COLOPHON This page is part of release 5.05 of the Linux man-pages project. A description of the project, information about reporting bugs, and the latest version of this page, can be found at https://www.kernel.org/doc/man-pages/. Linux 2019-10-10 MAN-PAGES(7)
NAME | SYNOPSIS | DESCRIPTION | STYLE GUIDE | EXAMPLE | SEE ALSO | COLOPHON